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Analyzing data flow in Python

You can use CodeQL to track the flow of data through a Python program to places where the data is used.

About this article

This article describes how data flow analysis is implemented in the CodeQL libraries for Python and includes examples to help you write your own data flow queries. The following sections describe how to use the libraries for local data flow, global data flow, and taint tracking. For a more general introduction to modeling data flow, see “About data flow analysis.”

Note

The modular API for data flow described here is available from CodeQL 2.13.0. The legacy library is deprecated and will be removed in December 2024. For information about how the library has changed and how to migrate any existing queries to the modular API, see New dataflow API for CodeQL query writing.

Local data flow

Local data flow is data flow within a single method or callable. Local data flow is easier, faster, and more precise than global data flow, and is sufficient for many queries.

Using local data flow

The local data flow library is in the module DataFlow, which defines the class Node denoting any element that data can flow through. The Node class has a number of useful subclasses, such as ExprNode for expressions, CfgNode for control-flow nodes, CallCfgNode for function and method calls, and ParameterNode for parameters. You can map between data flow nodes and expressions/control-flow nodes using the member predicates asExpr and asCfgNode:

class Node {
  /** Gets the expression corresponding to this node, if any. */
  Expr asExpr() { ... }

  /** Gets the control-flow node corresponding to this node, if any. */
  ControlFlowNode asCfgNode() { ... }

 ...
}

or using the predicate exprNode:

/**
 * Gets a node corresponding to expression `e`.
 */
ExprNode exprNode(Expr e) { ... }

Due to the control-flow graph being split, there can be multiple data-flow nodes associated with a single expression.

The predicate localFlowStep(Node nodeFrom, Node nodeTo) holds if there is an immediate data flow edge from the node nodeFrom to the node nodeTo. You can apply the predicate recursively, by using the + and * operators, or you can use the predefined recursive predicate localFlow.

For example, you can find flow from an expression source to an expression sink in zero or more local steps:

DataFlow::localFlow(DataFlow::exprNode(source), DataFlow::exprNode(sink))

Using local taint tracking

Local taint tracking extends local data flow by including non-value-preserving flow steps. For example:

temp = x
y = temp + ", " + temp

If x is a tainted string then y is also tainted.

The local taint tracking library is in the module TaintTracking. Like local data flow, a predicate localTaintStep(DataFlow::Node nodeFrom, DataFlow::Node nodeTo) holds if there is an immediate taint propagation edge from the node nodeFrom to the node nodeTo. You can apply the predicate recursively, by using the + and * operators, or you can use the predefined recursive predicate localTaint.

For example, you can find taint propagation from an expression source to an expression sink in zero or more local steps:

TaintTracking::localTaint(DataFlow::exprNode(source), DataFlow::exprNode(sink))

Using local sources

When asking for local data flow or taint propagation between two expressions as above, you would normally constrain the expressions to be relevant to a certain investigation. The next section will give some concrete examples, but there is a more abstract concept that we should call out explicitly, namely that of a local source.

A local source is a data-flow node with no local data flow into it. As such, it is a local origin of data flow, a place where a new value is created. This includes parameters (which only receive global data flow) and most expressions (because they are not value-preserving). Restricting attention to such local sources gives a much lighter and more performant data-flow graph and in most cases also a more suitable abstraction for the investigation of interest. The class LocalSourceNode represents data-flow nodes that are also local sources. It comes with a useful member predicate flowsTo(DataFlow::Node node), which holds if there is local data flow from the local source to node.

Examples

Python has builtin functionality for reading and writing files, such as the function open. However, there is also the library os which provides low-level file access. This query finds the filename passed to os.open:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall()
select call.getArg(0)

Notice the use of the API module for referring to library functions. For more information, see “Using API graphs in Python.”

Unfortunately this query will only give the expression in the argument, not the values which could be passed to it. So we use local data flow to find all expressions that flow into the argument:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ExprNode expr
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  DataFlow::localFlow(expr, call.getArg(0))
select call, expr

Typically, you will see several data-flow nodes for an expression as it flows towards a call (notice repeated locations in the call column). We are mostly interested in the “first” of these, what might be called the local source for the file name. To restrict attention to such local sources, and to simultaneously make the analysis more performant, we have the QL class LocalSourceNode. We could demand that expr is such a node:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ExprNode expr
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  DataFlow::localFlow(expr, call.getArg(0)) and
  expr instanceof DataFlow::LocalSourceNode
select call, expr

However, we could also enforce this by casting. That would allow us to use the member function flowsTo on LocalSourceNode like so:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ExprNode expr
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  expr.(DataFlow::LocalSourceNode).flowsTo(call.getArg(0))
select call, expr

As an alternative, we can ask more directly that expr is a local source of the first argument, via the predicate getALocalSource:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ExprNode expr
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  expr = call.getArg(0).getALocalSource()
select call, expr

These three queries all give identical results. We now mostly have one expression per call.

We still have some cases of more than one expression flowing to a call, but then they flow through different code paths (possibly due to control-flow splitting).

We might want to make the source more specific, for example a parameter to a function or method. This query finds instances where a parameter is used as the name when opening a file:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ParameterNode p
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  DataFlow::localFlow(p, call.getArg(0))
select call, p

For most codebases, this will return only a few results and these could be inspected manually.

Using the exact name supplied via the parameter may be too strict. If we want to know if the parameter influences the file name, we can use taint tracking instead of data flow. This query finds calls to os.open where the filename is derived from a parameter:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.TaintTracking
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

from DataFlow::CallCfgNode call, DataFlow::ParameterNode p
where
  call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
  TaintTracking::localTaint(p, call.getArg(0))
select call, p

Typically, this finds more results.

Global data flow

Global data flow tracks data flow throughout the entire program, and is therefore more powerful than local data flow. However, global data flow is less precise than local data flow, and the analysis typically requires significantly more time and memory to perform.

Note

You can model data flow paths in CodeQL by creating path queries. To view data flow paths generated by a path query in CodeQL for VS Code, you need to make sure that it has the correct metadata and select clause. For more information, see Creating path queries.

Using global data flow

The global data flow library is used by implementing the signature DataFlow::ConfigSig and applying the module DataFlow::Global<ConfigSig>:

import python

module MyFlowConfiguration implements DataFlow::ConfigSig {
  predicate isSource(DataFlow::Node source) {
    ...
  }

  predicate isSink(DataFlow::Node sink) {
    ...
  }
}

module MyFlow = DataFlow::Global<MyFlowConfiguration>;

These predicates are defined in the configuration:

  • isSource - defines where data may flow from.
  • isSink - defines where data may flow to.
  • isBarrier - optionally, restricts the data flow.
  • isAdditionalFlowStep - optionally, adds additional flow steps.

The data flow analysis is performed using the predicate flow(DataFlow::Node source, DataFlow::Node sink):

from DataFlow::Node source, DataFlow::Node sink
where MyFlow::flow(source, sink)
select source, "Dataflow to $@.", sink, sink.toString()

Using global taint tracking

Global taint tracking is to global data flow what local taint tracking is to local data flow. That is, global taint tracking extends global data flow with additional non-value-preserving steps. The global taint tracking library is used by applying the module TaintTracking::Global<ConfigSig> to your configuration instead of DataFlow::Global<ConfigSig>:

import python

module MyFlowConfiguration implements DataFlow::ConfigSig {
  predicate isSource(DataFlow::Node source) {
    ...
  }

  predicate isSink(DataFlow::Node sink) {
    ...
  }
}

module MyFlow = TaintTracking::Global<MyFlowConfiguration>;

The resulting module has an identical signature to the one obtained from DataFlow::Global<ConfigSig>.

Predefined sources and sinks

The data flow library contains a number of predefined sources and sinks, providing a good starting point for defining data flow based security queries.

  • The class RemoteFlowSource (defined in module semmle.python.dataflow.new.RemoteFlowSources) represents data flow from remote network inputs. This is useful for finding security problems in networked services.
  • The library Concepts (defined in module semmle.python.Concepts) contain several subclasses of DataFlow::Node that are security relevant, such as FileSystemAccess and SqlExecution.
  • The module Attributes (defined in module semmle.python.dataflow.new.internal.Attributes) defines AttrRead and AttrWrite which handle both ordinary and dynamic attribute access.

For global flow, it is also useful to restrict sources to instances of LocalSourceNode. The predefined sources generally do that.

Class hierarchy

  • DataFlow::Node - an element behaving as a data flow node.

    • DataFlow::CfgNode - a control-flow node behaving as a data flow node.

      • DataFlow::ExprNode - an expression behaving as a data flow node.
      • DataFlow::ParameterNode - a parameter data flow node representing the value of a parameter at function entry.
      • DataFlow::CallCfgNode - a control-flow node for a function or method call behaving as a data flow node.

    • RemoteFlowSource - data flow from network/remote input.

    • Attributes::AttrRead - an attribute read as a data flow node.

    • Attributes::AttrWrite - an attribute write as a data flow node.

    • Concepts::SystemCommandExecution - a data-flow node that executes an operating system command, for instance by spawning a new process.

    • Concepts::FileSystemAccess - a data flow node that performs a file system access, including reading and writing data, creating and deleting files and folders, checking and updating permissions, and so on.

    • Concepts::Path::PathNormalization - a data-flow node that performs path normalization. This is often needed in order to safely access paths.

    • Concepts::Decoding - a data-flow node that decodes data from a binary or textual format. A decoding (automatically) preserves taint from input to output. However, it can also be a problem in itself, for example if it allows code execution or could result in denial-of-service.

    • Concepts::Encoding - a data-flow node that encodes data to a binary or textual format. An encoding (automatically) preserves taint from input to output.

    • Concepts::CodeExecution - a data-flow node that dynamically executes Python code.

    • Concepts::SqlExecution - a data-flow node that executes SQL statements.

    • Concepts::HTTP::Server::RouteSetup - a data-flow node that sets up a route on a server.

    • Concepts::HTTP::Server::HttpResponse - a data-flow node that creates a HTTP response on a server.

Examples

This query shows a data flow configuration that uses all network input as data sources:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.DataFlow
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.TaintTracking
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.RemoteFlowSources
import semmle.python.Concepts

module RemoteToFileConfiguration implements DataFlow::ConfigSig {
  predicate isSource(DataFlow::Node source) {
    source instanceof RemoteFlowSource
  }

  predicate isSink(DataFlow::Node sink) {
    sink = any(FileSystemAccess fa).getAPathArgument()
  }
}

module RemoteToFileFlow = TaintTracking::Global<RemoteToFileConfiguration>;

from DataFlow::Node input, DataFlow::Node fileAccess
where RemoteToFileFlow::flow(input, fileAccess)
select fileAccess, "This file access uses data from $@.",
  input, "user-controllable input."

This data flow configuration tracks data flow from environment variables to opening files:

import python
import semmle.python.dataflow.new.TaintTracking
import semmle.python.ApiGraphs

module EnvironmentToFileConfiguration implements DataFlow::ConfigSig {
  predicate isSource(DataFlow::Node source) {
    source = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("getenv").getACall()
  }

  predicate isSink(DataFlow::Node sink) {
    exists(DataFlow::CallCfgNode call |
      call = API::moduleImport("os").getMember("open").getACall() and
      sink = call.getArg(0)
    )
  }
}

module EnvironmentToFileFlow = DataFlow::Global<EnvironmentToFileConfiguration>;

from Expr environment, Expr fileOpen
where EnvironmentToFileFlow::flow(DataFlow::exprNode(environment), DataFlow::exprNode(fileOpen))
select fileOpen, "This call to 'os.open' uses data from $@.",
  environment, "call to 'os.getenv'"
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